The Train Essay Example

The Train Essay Example The Train Essay The Train Essay The blistering cold numbed my eyes as I stumbled through the biting snow, dragging a dull, faded suitcase overloaded with necessities behind me, leaving a train in the deadly, ice snow. All abroad! a man in a bright red suit, a funny red hat and an equally crimson nose called, his voice straining to be heard over the howling wind. I struggled up to him and handed over my ticket, which was faded from sweat, tears and the bitter snow. Then man, whom I safely assumed was the train conductor, glanced briefly at the ticket, then smiled at me slightly. Terrible morning isnt it? he commented. I did not reply. In for a long ride, I see! he added when he saw my ticket. I gave no response as I checked my heavy bag. He beamed wider as he said, Welcome aboard the Windows Express, maam! I tried to smile back, but my scarf was bundled around my nose and my mouth, so I nodded instead. Thank you. My voice was barely audible over the gusty breeze as I stepped off the platform and boarded the tra in. The front compartment was crowded, packed like sardines. I squeezed past the numerous bodies to get to the next train ar, which was where I was to be seated. Even though the warmth there was comforting, I hoped it was not too stuffy in my car. I finally broke free from the crowd, swinging the car door open and entering a considerably cooler car. I removed my scarf from my face. My skin was raw with cold, but I barely felt it. I glanced around. This car was deserted, the seats along its aisle empty. I checked the number of compartment I had been assigned then opened the door to it. There was a small bunk bed in the corner, with a little closed off area I guessed was the bunk. I lanced out the single window, but there was nothing to be seen through the fog and slat than plummeted so hard against the glass it felt like hail. Feeling slightly claustrophobic in the narrow compartment, I briskly threw off my jacket and exited, walking back into the aisle. I noticed a door at the back of the car and decided to check it out. I made my way down the aisle and slid the door open. It led into the next car. This one did not have seats, but little booths lined up neatly along either side. There was a bellboy near the back, tending to a little refreshment stand. His eyes were bored, even as he attempted to reet me pleasantly. Hello, maam, welcome to the lounge. Would you like anything? Some pie, perhaps, or a cup of coffee? Uninterested, I declined politely, just as another door caught my eye. Without thinking, I flung it open. There was nothing in the room except a door with a window fixed into it, and a shiny red handle. This is where youll be disembarking, the bellboy informed me. That theres the emergency brake, he added, pointing at the handle. Youre perfectly welcome to pull that at any time. Taken aback, I spluttered on my Coke. What? I wouldnt. Thats ridiculous. Then how will I get to where I am going? I demanded incredulously. The bellboy shrugged. Sometimes you cant rely on trains to get you to where you want to go. I stared openly at him. Quickly dismissing him as crazy, I turned away and hastily returned to my compartment. Once safely inside, I lay on my bed, thinking to myself about my destination, a place I had never been and a face I had not seen for so many years it hurt to think about it. Flashbacks began to attack my once- peaceful mind, invading my would be calm pondering. At four years old, my hands pressed tightly over my ears, rying in vain to block out the sounds of heated arguments over nothing. Seven years old, an empty bottle crashing over my head as I tried to escape the debris of broken plates. Thirteen years, bruises covering my face, blood on my hands, a broken ankle, pain enveloping my body. Sixteen, my broken ribs causing me to shake as I slammed the front door behind me and limped as fast as I could into the night, my mother screaming for me to come home and my fathers threats chasing after me I jerked awake, nearly falling out of bed. My head felt heavy, and my eyes groggy, as if I had not slept or days. Sluggishly, I checked my watch, which still hung from my wrist. My eyes snapped wide open as they read the time, then relaxed again. My watch had stopped at around the same time I boarded that train. I got up, feeling tired, and felt my stomach growl. I stood up, stretched, brushed my hair and hurridly with my fingers and left my compartment. I was about to go to the lounge to eat when I noticed another girl sitting on a seat in the aisle, next to the window. She was clothed very thinly for the morbid weather, and her long locks of auburn hair poured over her shoulders. I approached her slowly. Hello, I said, and she jumped in surprised. Sorry for startling you, but do you have the time? She looked up at me, and I saw a thin ragged face that would have been pretty if not for the exhaustion consuming it, and the melancholy sadness in her eyes. Oh hello, its quite alright. Let me check. She lifted her mobile phone from her pocket, glanced at it, then shook her head apologetically. Strange. It seems to have died. I couldve sworn I charged it yesterday. I thanked her anyway, and asked her where she was going. She looked even weary when I questioned her. Im going to see my long-distance partner for four years, she said, in an almost rehearsed answer. I think he may propose to me, but I doubt Im ready for such a change. She drifted off, her voice trailing away, then came to her senses and asked me where I was headed. Im going to see my father. I havent seen him for nearly a decade, I said quietly. I cant say Im looking forward to it. She agreed with me, and we made small talk for awhile longer before I excused myself and when to the lounge. The bellboy was not there anymore, and I breathed an inward sigh of relief. The batty guy had freaked me out. I saw someone sitting down in one of the lounge booths. Hidden behind stacks of paperwork and a newspaper sat a middle aged man in an impressive suit and tie, muttering to himself in what looked like disgust. I walked over to him. Hi, sorry to bother you, but do you know what time it is? He glanced up and stopped grumbling. Hmm? Oh, yes. he shot a look at his fancy wristwatch. Well, what is this? My watch isnt working! He began to mumble again. I found it strange that nobody knew the time, so I stole a glimpse of the watch, and sure enough it ceased to ick. That’s a shame, I said good-naturedly, and asked him what he was doing. Its for a case I have, he replied. I must have looked puzzled, because he elaborated. Im a lawyer, you see, and Im about to defend the biggest drug cartels of all time- then again, I probably shouldn’t have told you that. I was about to leave him in peace when he continued on. In my defense, my client is one of my oldest friends. I owe him my life and hes gotten me out tons of scraps. I really have no choice. I began to feel a little uncomfortable, and averted my gaze to rest on the window. To my surprise, evening was over-the sun was rising on another day! Had I missed my stop? I was supposed to be off the train by dusk, yet here was dawn, a new day beginning right before my eyes! Panicking, I ran back to my car and asked the girl still sitting on he seat, What time did you get on? Which state are you going to? Bewildered, she told me the details of her travel. I calculated in my head. But what would only take you a few hours! You should have arrived by now, I said, unable to keep my voice from getting louder. She seemed indifferent. Maybe we made a few stops along the way. I wasnt awake the whole time, you know. But I had it all figured out. The pieces of the puzzle were coming together, forming an unbelievable picture in my head. I ran back into the lounge, and flung open the door at the back of it, where the emergency brake ws. The lady came racing after me, asking where I was going. Look, it’s the emergency brake. If we pull it, well be able to get out of here! I exclaimed. She looked at me the same way I had looked at the bellboy- as if one of us had gone bonkers. What? Are you crazy? Why? Its ridiculous. Then how will I ever get to where Im going? I smiled at the distinct resemblance her words had to mine. Reaching over, I grasped the red handle in my right hand and pulled as hard as I could. The train screeched against the metal of the tracks. I pushed against the exit door, and it opened easily. I leaped off the train. The ground was icy and cold beneath my feet, and the cold wind cut my uncovered face like a knife. I became aware that I did not even have my jacket with me as the cold began to envelope my very being. What are you doing? Youll freeze to death! the girl cried next to me. You dont even have your suitcase with you. I vaguely recalled my stuffed baggage, filled with things I suddenly realized were of no importance to me. And just like that, suddenly, I felt free. Free of all my emotional baggage, free of everything that weigh me down, free of guilt, pain and sorrow. A sense of warmth, a beautiful feeling, filled up my body, and I no longer felt the chill. I turned ba ck to the train, smiling for the first time in years. Why don’t you come with me? I asked the girl. She shook her head, eyes wide. And then the train door slammed shut, and began to move again. Free of doubt, I turned from the sight of the train slowly resending out of sight until it vanished, and began to trudge through the snow, in the direction of my destination. Sometimes we are weighed down by the pain, grief and guilt. We go through life day by day, merely existing, not living, and time stands still. Those days we live, so burdened by emotions, are meaningless and pas by without notice of purpose. If we could just let go of it all, forget our troubles for a few seconds, and look around us, perhaps we would see the beauty we are meant to see, and the wonder we would feel if we only let go.

Herbicides Used to Control or Kill Woody Stemmed Plants

Herbicides Used to Control or Kill Woody Stemmed Plants The United States Department of Agriculture takes herbicide application practices very seriously. You have to have a state pesticide handlers license to apply many of these chemicals or even to purchase them. I have developed this list of chemicals as a general overview of herbicides used to control of woody stemmed pests. Ways to apply an herbicide are numerous. They can  be applied to foliage or soil, they can be injected into the bark or sprayed on stumps. It all depends on the specific chemical formulation you are using.  Here are some application methods for these chemicals which should be used according to labeling instructions. Woody-stemmed Herbicides and How They are Applied These chemicals are listed by generic name, brand name and application method. Some of these herbicides may now be out of favor or have been added to a restricted list so use this list only as a starting guide. All links are to Cornell Universitys Pesticide Management Education Program. This is not an all-inclusive listing and is intended to give an overall view of available woody stem control chemicals and how they are applied: Amitrole (Amitrol-T) - foliar spray Bromacil (Hyvar) - broadcast treatment 2,4-D (several trade names) - foliar spray Dichlorprop (2,4-DP, Weedone 2,4-DP) - foliar spray Dicamba (Banvel) - cut surface Fosamine (Krenite) - foliage treatment Glyphosate (Roundup) - foliar spray Hexazinone (Velpar) - soil uptake Imazapyr (Arsenal) - foliar, frill, stump treatment Metsulfuron (Escort) - foliar spray Picloram (Tordon) - broadcast, foliar, frill treatment Tebuthiuron (Spike) - broadcast treatment Triclopyr (Garlon) - spray This listing is intended to be used as a general guide only. Before using any herbicide consult the label before using. Remember that labels change frequently and often contain special restrictions reguarding specific use of the chemical. How to Kill a Tree Using HerbicidesHow to Kill a Tree Without ChemicalsList of Approved Tree Control Chemicals

A Modest Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

A Modest Proposal - Essay Example Patrick’s Cathedral as Dean. He is known for his marvelous works such as Gulliver’s Travels, A journey to Stella and The Battle of Books etc. In this essay he proposes a method to mitigate the tense and misery in the life of the poverty stricken Irish people. While describing the family conditions of the beggars and the woeful economic situation of the Irish laborers who couldn’t feed their family and their infants, Swift points out a â€Å"surplus† of those infants who could not be fed. By considering the possibility of selling the children into slavery once they reach at the age of twelve, he objects that scheme, not because of the brutality in that scheme but because of its impracticality. Swift said that twelve years is a long time in which a child cannot be fed because of the fragile conditions of his parents, and that he came to know from his acquaintance in America that a one year old child in good healthis : â€Å"a most delicious, nourishing and wholesome Food, whether Stewed, Roasted, Baked or Boiled†(Swift, n.p.). From this point onwards, Swift supports his idea of subjecting the children into cannibalism at earlier age than to nurse the child for twelve years. Following this scheme the mother of the child has only one year to milk him/her so as to make him/her a perfect food for the upper class. After selling her child she would get enough time to work until she is pregnant again. He also showed that this idea if implied would help in reducing the Catholics too, as a Catholic child breeds rapidly as compared to a Protestant child. People could make use of their skin as well. Next he discusses the recipe for older children but refutes it because the meat of an older child would never be as fresh as the infant’s meat. He concludes with six advantages of this scheme and says that nobody should object his proposal until and unless somebody comes with a genuine counter argument and that this entire proposal is in the favor of the Irish prosperity. Critical Analysis Jonathan Swift is known for his satirical writings about the political situation prevailing at that time in his country and the snide comments about the unjust policies of his time. In this article he talked about the somber and murky situation of the poor people of Ireland and the condition of the streets and public places full of beggars followed by a team of their ill conditioned children. The mother of such children instead of earning are forced to beg their infants. All this strive for those children who would either turn themselves into thieves (because of the deprivation of basic necessities), or sell themselves to Barbados or fight for Spain, provide no actual benefit to the country. This fragile and solemn condition of these helpless infants adds more to the already present country grieves. Having explained this weird condition in a melancholic tone he suddenly shocked the audience by his own seemingly a very ruthless an d brutal solution of the problem. He calculates and shows the result that a 12 year breeding of children and then selling them is an impractical scheme and that it costs too much to the parents. However by using a very shrewd stance and highlighting all the negative aspects of the aforesaid scheme he puts forward his own idea of subjecting the infants to cannibalism at the age of one year. The audience had not yet recovered from the shock his seemingly hysteric and madding ideaand he started giving the calculations regarding the saving of a family who follows this proposal. He continued to explain the need of such an idea which if implemented save a thousands of currency per annum. At this point one reading all this juxtaposition of problem and solution would think that the author of this essay could be a serial killer or a

Describing resolution of a recent business conflict Coursework

Describing resolution of a recent business conflict - Coursework Example According to Spiroska (2014), conflicts always exist in organizations, and the important thing is how to resolve these conflicts for the betterment of the company. Unresolved conflicts affect various people involved. Conflict is costly as it makes workers get sick, and some even do not report to the job. In addition, avoidance of conflict lead to being fired and some opt to resign as in the case of Joe, who decided to quit after he anticipated that his boss was to fire him. Katrina (2010) suggests that such negatives in an organization lead to significant financial losses especially for businesses that are small. For example, if workers stay at home because conflict is not resolved at the workplace, the business incurs some direct costs particularly in the long term. In addition, the company might hire a temporal employee to replace the sick one, thus creating money drain for the company due to the extra pay. Projects are also affected by unresolved conflicts leading to reduced production and unsatisfied customers. Employee turnover due to conflict is also costly as it leads to vacant positions that need new employees. This attracts other costs like recruitment expenses, training expenses; severance paying, and the investment that was made in the knowledge of the previous employee (Spiroska, 2014). Various symptoms develop due unresolved conflict, and they act as the primary cost in many organizations. Some of the effects may include frustration, stress, accidents, and complaints by clients (Katrina, 2010). The cost of conflict from the case study that involved Joe led to the company losing revenue, the owner felt frustrated, and the company’s reputation was affected negatively. Furthermore, the management team was also affected by the retaliatory nature, poor attitude, and negativity of Joe, who was part of them. As a result, other managers tried all means to avoid a relationship with Joe. In the end, the owner hired an

A Guide to MADD Sites Essay -- Drunk Driving Essays

A Guide to MADD Sites â€Å"In 2001, more than half a million people were injured in crashes where police reported that alcohol was present — an average of one person injured approximately every 2 minutes† (Blincoe qtd. in MADD main). â€Å"In 2002, an estimated 17,419 people died in alcohol–related traffic crashes—an average of one every 30 minutes. These deaths constitute 41 percent of the 42,815 total traffic fatalities [in America]† (NHTSA qtd. in MADD main). From these statistics, it is clear to see that drunk driving is a serious issue that harms thousands of innocent American citizens. Although there are many organizations that address the issue of drinking and driving, MADD, Mothers Against Drunk Driving, is the most successful, as a group of citizens, in fulfilling their mission. It is ironic that the MADD organization was founded because of one person’s anger. Reports show that in 1979, Cindi Lamb and her five and a half old month daughter, Laura, were in a car accident involving a drunk driver. Their car was hit head on by a repeat drunk driving offender who was traveling at 120 miles per hour. As a result, Laura became one of the world’s youngest quadriplegics. This event prompted Lamb to start a war against drunk driving in her home state of Maryland (Lord qtd. in MADD main). On the west coast, less than a year later, 13-year-old Cari Lightner was killed by a drunk driver. According the article, the driver was released on bail for a hit-and-run drunk driving crash two days prior. In addition to this offense, the driver had two prior drunk driving convictions with a third offense for reckless accident. Despite all of these charges, he was still driving around with a valid ... ...ly up to the individual. Works Cited Blincoe, Seay et al. â€Å"Stats & Resources- General Statistics.† (2002). 4 Oct. 2003 . Lord, Janice. â€Å"Really MADD Looking Back at 20 Years.† DRIVEN Magazine. 27 Sept. 2003. Spring 2002 . Mothers Against Drunk Driving- Canada Chapter. â€Å"MADD Home Page.† (2003). 27 Sept. 2003 . Mothers Against Drunk Driving-Official Site. â€Å"MADD Home Page.† (2003). 27 Sept. 2003 . Mothers Against Drunk Driving- Orange County Chapter. â€Å"MADD Home Page.† (2003). 27 Sept. 2003 . National Highway and Traffic Administration. â€Å"Stats & Resources- General Statistics.† (2003) 3 Oct. 2003 .

Bata Lockout Case Study Essay

For Bata, labor had always posed major problems. Strikes seemed to be a perennial problem. Much before the assault case, Bata’s chronically restive factory at Batanagar had always plagued by labor strife. In 1992, the factory was closed for four and a half months. In 1995, Bata entered into a 3-year bipartite agreement with the workers, represented by the then 10,000 strong BMU, which also had the West Bengal government as a signatory. On July 21, 1998, Weston was severely assaulted by four workers at the company’s factory at Batanagar, while he was attending a business meet. The incident occurred after a member of BMU, Arup Dutta, met Weston to discuss the issue of the suspended employees. Dutta reportedly got into a verbal duel with Weston, upon which the other workers began to shout slogans. When Weston tried to leave the room the workers turned violent and assaulted him. This was the second attack on an officer after Weston took charge of the company, the first one being the assault on the chief welfare officer in 1996. In February 1999, a lockout was declared in Bata’s Faridabad Unit. Middleton commented that the closure of the unit would not have much impact on the company’s revenues as it was catering to lower-end products such as canvas and Hawaii chappals. The lock out lasted for eight months. In October 1999, the unit resumed production when Bata signed a three-year wage agreement. On March 8, 2000, a lockout was declared at Bata’s Peenya factory in Bangalore, following a strike by its employee union. The new leadership of the union had refused to abide by the wage agreement, which was to expire in August 2001. Following the failure of its negotiations with the union, the management decided to go for a lock out. Bata management was of the view that though it would have to bear the cost of maintaining an idle plant (Rs. 3 million), the effect of the closures on sales and production would be minimal as the footwear manufactured in the factory could be shifted to the company’s other factories and associate manufacturers. The factory had 300 workers on its rolls and manufactured canvas and PVC footwear. In July 2000, Bata lifted the lockout at the Peenya factory. However, some of the workers opposed the company’s move to get an undertaking from the factory employees to resume work. The employees demanded revocation of suspension against 20 of their fellow employees. They also demanded that conditions such as maintaining normal production schedule, conforming to standing orders and the settlement in force should not be insisted upon. In September 2000, Bata was again headed for a labour dispute when the BMU asked the West Bengal government to intervene in what it perceived to be a downsizing exercise being undertaken by the management. BMU justified this move by alleging that the management has increased outsourcing of products and also due to perceived declining importance of the Batanagar unit. The union said that Bata has started outsourcing the Power range of fully manufactured shoes from China, compared to the earlier outsourcing of only assembly and sewing line job. The company’s production of Hawai chappals at the Batanagar unit too had come down by 58% from the weekly capacity of 0. 144 million pairs. These steps had resulted in lower income for the workers forcing them to approach the government for saving their interests. PS: Weston resigned on January 30, 2001. This came as a severe setback to the Bata management.

How Are Dinosaurs Classified

In a sense, its much easier to name a new dinosaur than it is to classify it--and the same goes for new species of pterosaurs and marine reptiles. In this article, well discuss how paleontologists classify their new discoveries, assigning a given prehistoric animal to its proper order, suborder, genus and species. (See also a Complete, A to Z List of Dinosaurs and The 15 Main Dinosaur Types) The key concept in the classification of life is the order, the broadest description of a distinctive class of organisms (for example, all primates, including monkeys and human beings, belong to the same order). Under this order youll find various suborders and infraorders, as scientists use anatomical traits to dintinguish between the members of the same order. For example, the order of primates is divided into two suborders, prosimii (prosimians) and anthropoidea (anthropoids), which are themselves divided into various infraorders (platyrhinii, for example, which comprises all the new world monkeys). Theres also such a thing as superorders, which are invoked when a regular order is found to be too narrow in scope. The last two levels of description, genus and species, are the most common designations used when discussing prehistoric animals. Most individual animals are referred to by genus (for example, Diplodocus), but a paleontologist may prefer to invoke a particular species, say, Diplodocus carnegii, often abbreviated to D. carnegii. (For more on genus and species, see How Do Paleontologists Name Dinosaurs?) Below is a list of the orders of dinosaurs, pterosaurs and marine reptiles; just click on the appropriate links (or see the following pages) for more information. Saurischian, or lizard-hipped, dinosaurs include all the theropods (two-legged predators like Tyrannosaurus Rex) and sauropods (bulky, four-legged plant eaters like Brachiosaurus). Ornithischian, or bird-hipped, dinosaurs include a wide range of plant eaters, including ceratopsians like Triceratops and hadrosaurs like Shantungosaurus. Marine reptiles are divided into a baffling array of superorders, orders and suborders, which comprise such familiar families as pliosaurs, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs and mosasaurs. Pterosaurs are comprised of two basic suborders, which can roughly be divided into early, long-tailed rhamphorhynchoids and later, short-tailed (and much bigger) pterodactyloids. Next Page: The Classification of Saurischian Dinosaurs The order of saurischian dinosaurs comprises two seemingly very different suborders: theropods, the two-legged, mostly meat-eating dinosaurs, and sauropods, prosauropods and titanosaurs, about which more below. Order: Saurischia The name of this order means lizard-hipped, and refers to dinosaurs with a characteristic, lizard-like pelvic structure. Saurischian dinosaurs are also distinguished by their long necks and asymmetrical fingers. Suborder: Theropoda Theropods, the beast-footed dinosaurs, include some of the most familiar predators that roamed the landscapes of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Technically, theropod dinosaurs never went extinct; today theyre represented by the vertebrate class aves--that is, birds. Family: Herrerasauridae The herrerasaurs comprise only five dinosaurs, the most well-known of which are Staurikosaurus and Herrerasaurus. Among the first dinosaurs, herrerasaurs are characterized by weird anatomical traits, such as only two sacral vertebrae and a more primitive hand structure than later theropods (some paleontologists even dispute whether herrerasaurs were dinosaurs at all!). Herrerasaurs went extinct at the end of the Triassic period, well before the better-known dinosaurs of the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Family: Ceratosauridae Unlike the case with the more primitive herrerasaurs, its generally accepted that ceratosaurs were true dinosaurs. They were characterized by their hollow bones, S-shaped necks, and unique jaw structures, and are the first dinosaurs to show any sort of resemblance to birds (which evolved tens of millions of years later). The most well-known ceratosaurs are Ceratosaurus, Dilophosaurus and Coelophysis. Clade: Coelurosauria Technically, what set s coelurosaurians apart from other theropods is that theyre more closely related to birds than to their sister family, the carnosauria (described below). One problem with this clade--the membership of which is far from set in stone--is that it includes such an enormous amount of members, ranging all the way from Velociraptor to Ornithomimus to Tyrannosaurus Rex. Coelurosaurs are distinguished by the structure of their sacrums, tibias and ulnas, among other skeletal features. Clade: Carnosauria You might expect a clade named carnosauria to include such terrifying meat-eaters as Tyrannosaurus Rex, but that isnt the case. Besides their carnivorous diets, carnosaurs were distinguished by the comparative lengths of their femurs and tibias, the size of their eye sockets and the shapes of their skulls, among other anatomical features. They also had fairly large front arms, which is why T. Rex didnt make the cut. Famous examples of carnosaurs include Allosaurus and Spinosaurus. Family: Ther izinosauridae This family was once known as segnosauria, and its hopped back and forth all over the evolutionary map: the latest trend is to consider therizinosaurs as closely related to birds, hence their classification as theropods. These herbivorous and omnivorous dinosaurs were characterized by their extremely long claws, backward-facing pubic bones (similar to birds), four-toed feet, and (mostly) large sizes. Not many dinosaurs belong to this family; the most prominent examples are Therizinosaurus and Segnosaurus. Suborder: Sauropodomorpha The none-too-bright herbivorous dinosaurs known as sauropods and prosauropods often reached astonishing sizes; theyre believed to have split off from a primitive ancestor shortly before dinosaurs evolved in South America. Infraorder: Prosauropoda As you might guess from their name, the prosauropods (before the sauropods)--small- to medium-sized, occasionally bipedal herbivorous dinosaurs with long necks and small heads--were once thought to be ancestral to big, lumbering sauropods like Brachiosaurus and Apatosaurus. However, paleontologists now believe that these late Triassic and early Jurassic dinosaurs werent the direct ancestors of sauropods, but more like their great, great, etc. uncles. A classic example of a prosauropod is Plateosaurus. Infraorder: Sauropoda Sauropods and titanosaurs were the true giants of the dinosaur age, including such lumbering beasts as Diplodocus, Argentinosaurus and Apatosaurus. These four-legged, long-necked herbivores were characterized by their erect limbs (similar to those of modern elephants), long necks and tails, and relatively small heads with tiny brains. They were especially numerous toward the end of the Jurassic period, though lightly armored titanosaurs pr ospered right up to the K/T Extinction. Next page: The classification of ornithischian dinosaurs The order of ornithischians includes the vast majority of plant-eating dinosaurs of the Mesozoic Era, including ceratopsians, ornithopods, and duckbills, described in more detail below. Order: Ornithischia The name of this order means bird-hipped, and refers to the pelvic structure of its assigned genera. Oddly enough, modern birds are descended from saurischian (lizard-hipped), rather than ornithischian, dinosaurs! Suborder: Ornithopoda As you can guess from this suborders name (which means bird-footed), most ornithopods had birdlike, three-toed feet, as well as the birdlike hips typical of ornithischians in general. Ornithopods--which came into their own during the Cretaceous period--were quick, bipedal herbivores equipped with stiff tails and (often) primitive beaks. Examples of this populous suborder include Iguanodon, Edmontosaurus, and Heterodontosaurus. Hadrosaurs, or duck-billed dinosaurs, were a particularly widespread ornithopod family that dominated the later Cretaceous period; famous genera include Parasaurolophus, Maisaura and the huge Shantungosaurus. Suborder: Marginocephalia The dinosaurs in this suborder--which include Pachycephalosaurus and Triceratops--were distinguished by their ornate, oversized skulls. Infraorder: Pachycephalosauria The name of this infraorder means thick-headed, and thats not an exaggeration: pachycephalosaurs were characterized by their extremely thick, bony heads, which they presumably used to duel one another for the right to mate. These Cretaceous dinosaurs were mostly herbivores, though some isolated species may have been omnivorous. Well-known pachycephalosaurs include Pachycephalosaurus, Stygimoloch, and Stegoceras. Infraorder: Ceratopsia As pachycephalosaurs were distinguished by their skulls, ceratopsians were set apart by their horns and frills--some of which grew to gargantuan proportions, as in Triceratops and Styracosaurus. Ceratopsians often had thick hides as well, a means of defense against the tyrannosaurs and raptors of the late Cretaceous period. Overall, these large herbivores were behaviorally very similar to modern elephants and rhinoceroses. Suborder: Thyreophora This small suborder of ornithischian dinosaurs includes some large members, including Stegosaurus and Ankylosaurus. Thyreophorans (the name is Greek for shield bearers), which include both stegosaurs and ankylosaurs, were characterized by their elaborate spikes and plates, as well as the bludgeoning tails evolved by some genera. Despite their fearsome armament--which they most likely evolved for defensive purposes--they were herbivores rather than predators. Previous page: the classification of saurischian dinosaurs Next page: the classification of Marine Reptiles The marine reptiles of the Mesozoic Era are especially difficult for paleontologists to classify, because, in the course of evolution, creatures living in marine environments tend to take on a limited variety of body forms--which is why, for example, the average ichthyosaur looks so much like a large bluefin tuna. This trend toward convergent evolution can make it difficult to distinguish between the various orders and suborders of marine reptiles, much less individual species within the same genus, as detailed below. Superorder: Ichthyopterygia Fish flippers, as this superorder translates from the Greek, comprises ichthyosaurs--the streamlined, tuna- and dolphin-shaped predators of the Triassic and Jurassic periods. This abundant family of marine reptiles--which includes such famous genera as Ichthyosaurus and Ophthalmosaurus--largely went extinct at the end of the Jurassic period, supplanted by pliosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs. Superorder: Sauropterygia The name of this superorder means lizard flippers, and its a good description of the diverse family of marine reptiles that swam the seas of the Mesozoic Era, starting from about 250 million years ago to 65 million years ago--when sauropterygians (and the other families of marine reptiles) went extinct along with dinosaurs. Order: Placodontia The most ancient marine reptiles, placodonts flourished in the oceans of the Triassic period, between 250 and 210 million years ago. These creatures tended to have squat, bulky bodies with short legs, reminiscent of turtles or overgrown newts, and probably swam along shallow coastlines rather than in the deep oceans. Typical placodonts included Placodus and Psephoderma. Order: Nothosauroidea Paleontologists believe these Triassic reptiles were like small seals, scouring shallow waters for food but coming ashore periodically on beaches and rocky outcroppings. Nothosaurs were about six feet long, with streamlined bodies, long necks and webbed feet, and they probably fed exclusively on fish. You wont be surprised to learn that the prototypical nothosaur was Nothosaurus. Order: Pachypleurosauria One of the more obscure orders of extinct reptiles, pachypleurosaurs were slender, smallish (about one and one-half to three feet long), small-headed creatures that likely led an exclusively aquatic existence and fed on fish. The exact classification of these marine reptiles--the most commonly preserved of which is Keichousaurus--is still a matter of ongoing debate. Superfamily: Mosasauroidea Mosasaurs, the sleek, fierce, and often giant marine reptiles of the later Cretaceous period, represented the pinnacle of marine reptile evolution; oddly enough, their only living descendants (at least according to some analyses) are snakes. Among the most fearsome mosasaurs were Tylosaurus, Prognathodon and (of course) Mosasaurus. Order: Plesiosauria This order accounts for the most familiar marine reptiles of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and its members often attained dinosaur-like sizes. Plesiosaurs are divided by paleontologists into two main suborders, as follows: Suborder: Plesiosauroidea The prototypical plesiosaur was a large, streamlined, long-necked predator possessing big flippers and sharp teeth. Plesiosaurs werent as accomplished swimmers as their close cousins, the pliosaurs (described below); they cruised slowly along the surface of rivers, lakes and oceans, extending their long necks to snap up unwary prey. Among the most famous plesiosaurs were Elasmosaurus and Cryptoclidus.Suborder: Pliosauroidea Compared to plesiosaurs, pliosaurs had much more fearsome body plans, with long, toothy heads, short necks, and barrel-shaped bodies; many genera resembled modern sharks or crocodiles. Pliosaurs were more agile swimmers than plesiosaurs, and may have been more common in deeper waters, where they fed on other marine reptiles as well as fish. Among the scariest pliosaurs were the gigantic Kronosaurus and Liopleurodon. Compared to saurischian and ornithischian dinosaurs, not to mention marine reptiles, the classification of pterosaurs (winged lizards) is a relatively straightforward affair. These Mesozoic reptiles all belong to a single order, which is itself divided into two suborders (only one of which is a true suborder in evolutionary terms). Order: Pterosauria Pterosaurs--almost certainly the first large animals on earth ever to evolve flight--were characterized by their hollow bones, relatively large brains and eyes, and, of course, the flaps of skin extending along their arms, which were attached to the digits on their front hands. Suborder: Rhamphorhynchidae In legalistic terms, this suborder has a shaky status, since its believed that the pterodactyloidea (described below) evolved from members this group, rather than both groups having evolved from a last common ancestor. Whatever the case, paleontologists often assign smaller, more primitive pterosaurs--such as Rhamphorhynchus and Anurognathus--to this family. Rhamphorhynchoids are characterized by their teeth, long tails, and (in most cases) lack of skull crests, and lived during the Triassic period. Suborder: Pterodactyloidea This is the only true suborder of pterosauria; it includes all the large, familiar flying reptiles of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, including Pteranodon, Pterodactylus, and the enormous Quetzalcoatlus. Pterodactyloids were characterized by their relatively large size, short tails and long hand bones, as well as (in some species) elaborate, bony head crests and lack of teeth. These pterosaurs survived up until the K/T Extinction 65 million years ago, when they were wiped out along with their dinosaur and marine reptile cousins.